Tarsier

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND BEHAVIOR

Tarsiers exhibit variation in social system between species. The best descriptor of T. tarsier social system may be monogamous with facultative polygyny, where one male’s range overlaps with that of another female, and sometimes with multiple females whose ranges overlap (Gursky 1995; 2007a). Genetic evidence suggests that T. lariang may also have a monogamous mating system (Driller et al. 2009). Tarsiers outside of Sulawesi do not appear to have a monogamous social organization. A dispersed (noyau) mating system, where a male’s range overlaps multiple female ranges, characterizes sociality among T. bancanus and T. syrichta (Crompton & Andau 1987; Dagosto et al. 2001; Neri-Arboleda et al. 2002).

In general, the western tarsiers (T. bancanus) are the least gregarious, followed by the intermediate Philippine tarsier (T. syrichta), and finally with the eastern species (all other species) showing the highest levels of sociality (Shekelle 2003). Sociality within a tarsier species varies with resource availability and predation. Spectral tarsiers decrease distances between group members during times of higher food resource availability and increased predation pressure (Gursky 2002b). T. dentatus also increases distances between individuals in more disturbed habitats with fewer resources (Merker et al. 2005). T. spectrum is considerably gregarious both in and out of the sleeping site, although outside the sleeping site group members usually are not in actual physical contact with one another (Gursky 2000c). At sleeping sites, typical T. tarsier social behaviors include playing, allogrooming, snuggling, vocalizing, and scent-marking, while social behaviors with group members away from the sleeping site include playing, allogrooming, snuggling, vocalizing, scent-marking, food-sharing, and copulating (Gursky 2000c).

Group size and composition varies both within and between tarsier species. In spectral tarsiers (T. tarsier), there is significant variation in group size (the number of individuals who share a sleeping site) and composition (Gursky 1995). The average group size of T. tarsier is 3.1 individuals and is comprised of at least a mated pair of adults but also sometimes with an additional adult female, and often offspring (MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1980; Gursky 1995; 2000b). Spectral tarsier groups do not contain more than one adult male (Gursky 2006). Similarly, Dian’s tarsier groups usually consist of one adult male, one or more adult females, and their offspring sharing a sleeping tree (Merker 2006). This species decreases group size in disturbed habitats with fewer resources (Merker et al. 2005). In contrast, T. bancanus do not sleep with other tarsiers and are usually found solitary (Crompton & Andau 1987). T. syrichta are almost always alone as well.

Tarsiers engage in territorial behaviors including defense through patrolling and social encounters, as well as territorial advertisement through scent-marking and vocalizations. Territorial defense is seen in the spectral tarsier (T. tarsier) and likely functions most importantly in mate defense but also may have other functions as well (Gursky 2003b; 2007a). Territorial disputes in this species usually occur near the edges of a group’s territory, and consist of group members aggregating, calling toward, chasing and lunging at the intruder (MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1980; Gursky 2003b; 2007a). T. bancanus males also patrol their territories (Crompton and Andau 1986). In Sulawesi, vocalizations may function as territorial advertisement, where both males and females of T. tarsier, T. dentatus, and T. lariang perform morning duet vocalizations (Gursky 2007a; Merker et al. 2005; Merker & Groves 2006). Both T. tarsier and T. syrichta mark territory by depositing scent-marks within and along home range boundaries (Gursky 1997; Neri-Arboleda et al. 2002). T. dentatus establishes sleeping sites near the periphery of home ranges, which may aid in the renewal of scentmarks along territorial boundaries (Merker 2006).

Both sexes of spectral tarsier (T. tarsier) disperse from their natal sleeping sites. Males disperse on average 733 meters (2404.9 ft), much farther than the female average of 360 meters (1181.1 ft) (Gursky 2007a).

REPRODUCTION

The female sexual cycles of T. bancanus in captivity last on average 24 days (Wright et al. 1986b). The sexual cycles of T. syrichta average 24.6 days (Catchpole & Fulton 1943). During estrus, the genitals of female T. bancanus swell and become reddish, a state that usually lasts for 6-9 days per cycle (Wright et al. 1986a; 1986b). In captivity, female T. bancanus solicit courtship by performing genital displays. Males then vocalize a “chirruping” call and sniff the genitals of the female. Both sexes may urinate. Courtship may last from 60 to 90 minutes but copulation itself lasts only around a minute and a half (Wright et al. 1986a). Copulation occurs on a vertical perch, with the male mounting the female in a dorsal–ventral position from behind and below. Post-copulation, the male will groom his genitals and the female will rub herself on various objects nearby (Wright et al. 1986a).

Wild spectral tarsiers (T. tarsier), unlike other tarsiers, reproduce seasonally, with two observed mating seasons between April-June, and again between October-November and corresponding birth peaks between April-May and November-December (MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1980; Gursky 2007a). The average inter-birth interval in wild T. tarsier is 13.5 months (Gursky 2007a).

Estimated average gestation length in wild T. tarsier is 193 days (6.3 months) (Gursky 2007a). Gestation in captive T. bancanus is around 178 days (5.9 months), while recorded values for T. tarsier and T. syrichta are 157 days (5.2 months) and 180 days respectively (5.9 months) (Izard et al. 1985; Roberts 1994).

T. bancanus females are capable of conceiving offspring at around two years of age and T. tarsier are sexually mature at around 518 days (17.0 months) (Roberts 1994).

PARENTAL CARE

Relative to their parents, infant tarsiers are very large at birth (20-33% of adult weight) and are born with open eyes and fur (Roberts 1994; Gursky 2000a). Tarsier infants are born as singletons (Roberts & Kohn 1993; Gursky 2007a). In captivity, T. bancanus birth weights average 23.0 g (0.8 oz) and T. syrichta birth weights average 23.2 g (0.8 oz) (Haring & Wright 1989; Roberts & Kohn 1993).

Wild infant spectral tarsiers T. tarsier are carried in the mouth of the mother in the manner of a cat and almost never by clinging to the fur, a pattern which is also seen in T. syrichta (Haring & Wright 1989; Gursky 1994; 2007a). In some captive observations of T. bancanus, mothers carried their offspring orally, in other studies this was not the case with mothers never carrying their offspring orally (Niemitz 1984b; Roberts 1994). In the wild infant T. tarsier are carried about 20% the time overall, but carriage declines as the infant ages (Gursky 2007a).

The captive T. bancanus infant first moves away from its mother at 10-15 days old. Skilled locomotion commences in captive T. bancanus around 22-28 days old and mothers stop trying to carry their infant between 41 and 43 days old (Roberts 1994). T. tarsier and T. bancanus infants are able to move quadrupedally before they are able to leap (Gursky 1997). In wild T. tarsier, the first leaps are seen at 32 days old (Gursky 1997). Attempts to catch live prey in captive T. bancanus start at an average of 37 days old (Roberts 1994). However, in the wild, a T. tarsier infant was seen hunting at 26 days old (MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1980). Wild T. tarsier hunting success is first met at 45 days old (Gursky 1997). Captive play in T. bancanus begins at an average of 22.5 days old. Between 38 and 49 days old, the mother and infant start to sleep apart, and completely cease to do so by 75 days old. Wild T. tarsier nursing conflict peaks in the 8-9th weeks of life and infants are weaned at an average of 80 days of age (Gursky 2007a). Weaning occurs at 80 days in T. bancanus and 82 days old in T syrichta (Roberts 1994).

Perhaps the most interesting aspect of spectral tarsier (T. tarsier) infant rearing is the large amount of time the infant spends alone (Gursky 1994). While she forages, a wild mother will “park” her offspring and leave it by itself, occasionally visiting the infant (MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1980; Roberts 1985). However, the T. tarsier mother usually stays relatively close to the “parked” infant and will “park” it at an average of 11 different times over the course of the night (Gursky 2002a). Until 70 days of age, T. tarsier infants are “parked” more than half of the time, usually almost 6 m (19.7 ft) above the ground and not in particularly concealed locations (Gursky 1997).

Allocare is seen in wild spectral tarsiers (T. tarsier), and may be provided to the infant by subadults of both sexes and adult males with the most non-maternal allocare provided by subadult females (Gursky 2000a). Types of allocare that are seen include infant transport, food sharing, play, grooming, baby-sitting, physical contact, and increased vigilance and alarm calling (Gursky 2000a). While other group members sometimes carry the infant, the vast majority of transport is provided by the mother (Gursky 2000a).

Infanticide has occurred in captive T. bancanus (Roberts 1994).

COMMUNICATION

re noticeable differences in vocalizations between, and in some cases within tarsier species, and playback experiments with wild tarsiers have shown that such differences are recognized by the tarsiers themselves. The implications of this are that groups that have different vocalizations or duet structure may in fact be different cryptic species and that there may be more species than are currently recognized (Shekelle et al. 1997; Nietsch & Kopp 1998).

Several species of Sulawesian tarsier, including T. dentatus, T. tarsier, and T. lariang, duet at the end of their activity cycle, before sunrise near the sleeping site (Niemitz et al. 1991; Tremble et al. 1993; Shekelle 2003; Merker & Groves 2006). Vocal duets in T. tarsier occur regularly between mated pairs when they return to the sleeping tree, occurring roughly at the same time nearly every morning (Gursky 1997, 2000c; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980; Nietsch 1999, 2003). In this species, most duets are started by females and last several minutes (Gursky 2000c; Nietsch 2003). There may be multiple functions of vocal duets, including territorial displays and mate guarding (Gursky 1997; 2000c; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980; Nietsch 2003; Gursky 2007). T. pumilus do not perform duets when returning to their sleeping site, and may vocalize rarely (Grow & Gursky-Doyen in review). T. bancanus and T. syrichta do not perform duets (Nietsch 2003). In fact, wild T. bancanus are not very vocal at all at some study sites, while at others they are significantly so (Niemitz 1984f; Crompton & Andau 1987). T. bancanus has been reported to produce “calling concerts” in which several tarsiers call together, but such events are not analogous to the duets heard in other tarsiers (Crompton & Andau 1987).

There are a number of types of vocalizations produced by tarsiers that are not part of duets. For example, T. tarsier has 15 different types of calls, including distress calls, alarm whistles, alarm calls, mid-intensity alarm calls, female screams, contact trills, contact whistles, food calls, play whistles, infant squeaks and other types of whistles (Nietsch 2003). T. bancanus use four general types of vocalization (Niemitz 1984f).

Several postures in T. tarsier serve a communicatory function. Fear is communicated by folded ears while a crouched posture, an open mouth, and/or a lunge forward communicate a defensive threat. A bipedal stance with an open mouth is an aggressive threat (MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1980).

Tarsiers possess a gland in their lips as well as an abdominal gland, which, together with the anogenital region, function in olfactory communication when rubbed on substrates including other tarsiers (Niemitz 1979; MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1980; Wright et al. 1986; Crompton & Andau 1987; Shekelle 2003). All tarsiers of various ages and sexes urine mark as well (Niemitz 1979;MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1980). In fact, even if not seen or heard, tarsiers can be recognized as present in a given habitat purely by their scent marking alone (Niemitz 1979). T. bancanus of both sexes scent-mark and vocalize most often during female estrus and proestrus (Wright et al. 1986).

Content last modified: December 1, 2010

Written by Kurt Gron. Reviewed by Nanda Grow.

Cite this page as:
Gron KJ. 2010 December 1. Primate Factsheets: Tarsier (Tarsius) Behavior . <http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/tarsier/behav>. Accessed 2020 July 9.

SPECIAL NOTES

INTERNATIONAL STATUS

For individual primate species conservation status, please search the IUCN Red List.
Also search the current scientific literature for primate conservation status (overall as well as for individual species), and visit CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).

Conservation information last updated in 2010 follows, for comparison:

T. tumpara of Siau Island, Indonesia is considered one of the World’s 25 Most Endangered Primates and has been assessed as Critically Endangered (CR A1acd) under the IUCN Red List criteria (Mittermeier et al. 2007). Captive management of tarsiers is difficult and up until now has not met with great success, partially owing to the nutritional difficulties involved with a primate that eats only live food further complicated by its reproductive life-history. As a result, over half of the tarsiers caught in the wild die within two years in captivity and captive infant mortality is high (Fitch-Snyder 2003). Further, at no point have any of the Sulawesian tarsiers been held in captivity (Gursky 2007a).

CONSERVATION THREATS

Threat: Human-Induced Habitat Loss and Degradation

Habitat destruction, change, and fragmentation pose significant threats to tarsiers with T. bancanus, T. tarsier, and T. syrichta all having lost more than half of their original habitat (Wright et al. 1987; MacKinnon 1997; Gursky 1998; Yustian 2007). For example, on Sulawesi, rates of habitat destruction remain high, even within protected areas (Gursky 1998). Further, tarsiers are usually not found in areas with high human populations and those which are under intensive agricultural use (Leksono et al. 1997). T. b. saltator habitats are destroyed for palm and pepper plantations and due to tin mining (Yustian 2007). Logging reduces tarsier density by destroying preferred supports and sleeping sites and by producing loud noises which disturbs the animals (Merker & Mühlenberg 2000). Further, areas that have been logged are then susceptible to other activities such as the establishment of plantations, the raising of livestock, and settlement (Merker et al. 2005). Strangler figs are often removed from human-utilized forests because they threaten commercially valuable trees. Because spectral tarsiers (T. tarsier) prefer strangler figs as sleeping sites, such destruction may threaten the species (Gursky 1998). Some tarsiers, such as T. b. saltator are able to live in small patches of secondary harvested forest (Yustian 2007). While tarsiers can inhabit degraded areas, secondary habitats and areas under cultivation, if all suitable sleeping sites are destroyed or cleared, then they become locally extinct (Leksono et al. 1997). Further, tarsiers are not found in all secondary habitats (Dagosto & Gebo 1996/1997). In general, densities of T. dentatus become progressively lower with progressively higher levels of disturbance (Merker et al. 2005). Although T. b. saltator can live in secondary habitats with dense undergrowth, they are not found in those that are carefully cleared and managed by humans (Yustian 2007). Compounding all of these problems in some habitats is a lack of enforcement of existing rules designed to protect tarsier habitats (Gursky 2007a).

Threat: Harvesting (hunting/gathering)

Hunting can also be a significant threat to tarsiers. For example, the Siau Island Tarsier (unnamed Tarsius sp.) is hunted as a snack, sometimes eaten 5-10 at a time (Mittermeier et al. 2007). Further, opportunistic hunting of tarsiers occurs on Sulawesi, often utilizing dogs and blowguns (Gursky 2007a).

Threat: Persecution

Tarsiers are sometimes erroneously persecuted by farmers who believe that the tarsiers are eating their crops while in actuality they only eat animal prey, including pests that pose real threats to crops (Leksono et al. 1997; Merker et al. 2005). In fact, tarsiers could potentially act as a natural pesticide (Leksono et al. 1997).

Threat: Pollution

In some areas, the use of agricultural poisons have caused local extinction of tarsiers while in other areas of poison use, if still present, tarsiers show signs of sickness, including sores and low body weight which may be associated with such poisons (Leksono et al. 1997).

Threat: Natural Disasters

Forest fires, partially the result of human action and climate fluctuations, threaten tarsiers and have the potential to decimate entire tarsier populations (Wright 2003).

Threat: Human Disturbance

Human political unrest, especially civil wars in the Philippines and Indonesia have threatened tarsier species, especially those that reside entirely within a single country (all but T. bancanus). This is because protected habitats are often exploited during periods of lawlessness associated with political unrest (Wright 2003).

LINKS TO MORE ABOUT CONSERVATION

CONSERVATION INFORMATION

• No current links for Tarsius
• Links for all species

CONSERVATION NEWS

• Endangered primate threatened by tourism in the Philippines  (Daily Mail; December 12, 2011)
• Philippine Tarsiers thrive in Bohol  (Manila Bulletin; October 12, 2011)
• US-based group launches study on tarsiers in South Cotabato’s Mt. Matutum  (Manila Bulletin; February 3, 2011)
• Meeting the world’s smallest primate  (BBC News; May 5, 2010; Video)
• Tiny, long-lost primate rediscovered in Indonesia  (Reuters; November 18, 2008)
• Links for all species

ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN Tarsius CONSERVATION

• Orangutan Tropical Peatland Project

Content last modified: December 1, 2010

Written by Kurt Gron. Reviewed by Nanda Grow.

Cite this page as:
Gron KJ. 2010 December 1. Primate Factsheets: Tarsier (Tarsius) Conservation . <http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/tarsier/cons>. Accessed 2020 July 9.

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Content last modified: December 1, 2010

IMAGES

	Tarsius bancanus Photo: David Haring
	Tarsius dentatus Photo: Stefan Merker
	Tarsius lariang Photo: Stefan Merker
	Tarsius syrichta Photo: David Haring
	Tarsius syrichta Photo: David Haring
	Tarsius syrichta Photo: David Haring
	Tarsius syrichta Photo: Garrison & Schmidt