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TAXONOMY
Suborder: Haplorrhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Pitheciidae
Subfamily: Pitheciinae
Genus: Cacajao
Species: C. calvus, C. melanocephalus
Subspecies: C. c. calvus, C. c. novaesi, C. c. rubicundus, C. c. ucayalii, C. m. melanocephalus, C. m. ouakary
Other names: uacari; C. calvus: bald uakari, bald-headed uacari, red uakari, red-and-white uacari; witte oeakari (Dutch); ouakari chauve (French); cacajao, cacayao, huapo colorado, huapo rojo, uacaries, uacari blanco (Spanish); skallig kortsvansaparöd uakari, skallig uakari, vit uakari (Swedish); C. c. novaesi: Novaes’ bald-headed uacari; uacarí (Spanish); C. c. rubicundus: red bald-headed uacari; mono ingles, uacarí-vermelho (Spanish); C. c. ucayalii: Ucayali bald-headed uacari, Peruvian red uacari; C. melanocephalus: black uacari, black-headed uacari, Humboldt’s black-headed uacari; zwartkopoeakari (Dutch); ouakara à tête noire (French); mono chucuto, uacari-bicó, uacarí-preto (Spanish); svart uakari, svartansiktad kortsvansapa, svarthuvad uakari (Swedish).
Total population: Unknown
Regions: Neotropical South America
Gestation: 6 months
Height: 41.4 to 45.6 cm (M), 38.9 to 44 cm (F)
Weight: 2.66 to 3.45 kg (M & F)
While some authors list several additional subspecies of uakari, as per Groves (2005), only four subspecies of C. calvus are considered here. C. melanocephalus is sometimes divided into two subspecies, C. m. melanocephalus and C. m. ouakary, and here both are considered at the subspecific level as per Hershkovitz (1987) for the sake of simplicity. Some authors also elevate the two subspecies of C. melanocephalus to full species level, however here they are not treated as such. In 2008, two additional species of uakari, C. ayresi (Aracá uakari) and C. hosomi (Neblina uakari) were described (Boubli et al. 2008). The common and generic names of the uakari species likely have their origin in indigenous Amazonian languages (Barnett 2004).
MORPHOLOGY
Medium-sized uakaris are the largest of the New World monkeys without a prehensile tail and are characterized by the presence of a short and bushy tail which is less than half to only one third of the head and body length of the animal (Fontaine 1981; Hershkovitz 1987; da Cunha & Barnett 1989; Barnett 2005; Norconk 2007). The muzzle is broad (Hershkovitz 1987). The main distinguishing characteristics between the two species of uakari are the head and the pelage. The C. calvus head ranges from bald to sparsely haired, while C. melanocephalus has plenty of hair (Barnett 2005). The profound lack or near lack of pigment in the face and head of C. calvus results in a reddish appearance of the face and head caused by the presence blood vessels near the surface of the skin (Hershkovitz 1987; Barnett 2005). The face of C. melanocephalus is black, and the head has blackish hair (Hershkovitz 1987; Barnett 2005). The pelage of C. melanocephalus is generally a rich and bright reddish-brown, with black head, neck, hands, and feet, while C. calvus can range among subspecies from reddish to orange and buffy to whitish or pale yellow (Hershkovitz 1987; Barnett 2005; A. Barnett pers. comm). C. m. ouakary has a gold-colored cape and C. m. melanocephalus has a black one (A. Barnett pers. comm.). The color differences between populations can be arranged on a geographic continuum; that is, they grade from one to another by location (Barnett 2005). This is well exhibited in C. calvus, where C. c. calvus is very pale, while C. c. novaesi is orange-buff, C. c. rubicundus is reddish, and C. c. ucayalii is reddish-orange (Hershkovitz 1987; Barnett & Brandon-Jones 1997).
The ventrum is nearly bare (Barnett 2005). Both sexes have a sternal gland which might be involved in olfactory communication (Fontaine & DuMond 1977). In both species, the fur on the shoulders and anterior back is long, shortening by the midback, and in C. melanocephalus, the hair on the sides of the body can be up to 10 cm (3.9 in) long (Hershkovitz 1987; Barnett 2005). In general, in both species, males are larger and weigh more than the females but there are no differences in the pelage between males and females (Hershkovitz 1987; Barnett & Brandon-Jones 1997).
C. melanocephalus head and body lengths average 41.4 cm (16.3 in) (male) and 38.9 cm (15.3 in) (female), while C. calvus average 45.6 cm (18.0 in) (male) and 44.0 cm (17.3 in) (female) (Hershkovitz 1987). Based on very small samples, male C. melanocephalus can weigh between 2.66 kg and 2.8 kg (5.9 and 6.2 lb), while C. calvus of both sexes can weigh between 2.75 and 3.45 kg (6.1 and 7.6 lb) (Ayres 1986 cited in Hershkovitz 1987).
Uakaris are predominantly arboreal quadrupeds, most frequently walking, running, clamber-running, leaping and bridging in the upper and middle-upper levels of the forest canopy (Walker 1996; Walker & Ayres 1996; Boubli 1997a; Barnett 2005). Less frequently, arm-swinging is used, and on rare occasions, bipedal movement is seen (Boubli 1997a). In addition, uakaris will often leap or drop between supports during travel, a result of their relatively discontinuous forest habitat (Walker 1996; Walker & Ayres 1996; Boubli 1997a). While feeding, uakaris usually sit and while resting they will either sit or lie on their belly (Walker 1996). Uakaris are capable of swimming (Barnett 2008). Uakaris seasonally forage on the ground (Ayres 1986; Barnett 2008).
In captivity, uakaris have lived into their mid-thirties (Weigl 2005).
ECOLOGY
C. melanocephalus are predominantly frugivorous but specialize in the seeds of hard-husked unripe fruits. For C. melanocephalus, the recorded diet at one study site comprised of 89% fruits, 5% flowers, 4% leaves and leaf parts, and 2% invertebrates (including ants, spiders, grasshoppers, katydids and roaches). The concentration on unripe fruits is unlike any unlike other neotropical frugivores, and is helped by special dentition and a chewing apparatus which allows it to use foods which are unavailable to other primates (Ayres 1989; 1990; Boubli 1999). Up to 120 species of plant are exploited as food with a few preferred species making up a significant proportion of the diet. The seeds of fruits are extremely important in the diet, comprising the majority of fruit feeding observations (Boubli 1999). The majority of these come from unripe fruits. Fruits are often bitten along their sutures, which require less force to puncture (Adrian Barnett pers. comm.).
The known diets of C. calvus are similar to those recorded for C. melanocephalus and C. ouakary, with seeds of fruits predominating (67% of observations) followed by other parts of fruit (10%), flowers (6%), nectar, some insects (5%) and unidentified foods (4%) (Ayres & Johns 1987; Ayres 1989). Aquino & Encarnación (1999) noted C. c. ucayalii eating 53 plant species from 20 families, of which 46% were consumed for their seeds. Of these, 67% had thick heavy husks and were consumed in the immature state. In the dry season, Peruvian red uakaris will also eat bromeliad leaf bases, and also move to unflooded forest to feed on palm fruit as well as (unspecified) flowers and leaves (Aquino & Encarnación 1994; Aquino 1995). For C. ouakary, larvae of wasps and the eggs of turtles are also reported as being eaten on occasion, with wasp nests raided by the species (Barnett 1999; Barnett et al. 2005a; Barnett 2008). Almost one hundred species of plant are eaten by C. calvus (Ayres 1989). Uakaris sometimes descend to the ground during specific times of the year and forage for seeds and seedlings (Ayres 1989; Barnett & de Castilho 2000; Barnett 2008). When fruits are in short supply, leaves and pith are consumed (Barnett 2005; 2008). In addition, during periods of relative fruit scarcity, uakaris will actually increase the amount of ripe fruit pulp they consume because during periods of fruit abundance, they will focus on unripe seeds and other abundant foods as preferred resources (Boubli 1999).
Uakaris are diurnal. The day of C. m. melanocephalus is spent resting (22%), traveling (27%), feeding (20%), and moving/foraging (31%). Over the course of the day, travel occurs most early and late in the day, resting peaks in the late morning or early afternoon, feeding is relatively constant, and moving/foraging is common in the morning and early afternoon (Boubli 1997a). The white uakari (C. c. calvus) begins its day at sunup and descends from the sleeping trees to feed. The troop will feed and move until noon with a period of rest around midday. In the mid-afternoon, the troop will resume feeding and moving and by dark, the group will have begun entering their sleeping site for the night (Ayres 1990).
Uakaris are characterized by very large day ranges, traveling up to 4.4 km (2.7 mi) or even 5 km (3.1 mi) per day during fruiting. Annual averages are often lower; in one study with small sample sizes they averaged 2.3 km (1.4 mi) per day (Ayres 1989; Boubli 1997a; 1999). They travel quickly (Boubli 1997b). Some subspecies range even farther, with one estimate placing the day range of C. c. ucayalii at an average of 7.3 km (4.5 mi) (Leonard & Bennett 1995; 1996). Ranging distances are dependent on the state of food availability and during the high-water fruiting season distances traveled are farther than during the dry season, when they are considerably shorter (Ayres 1990). Home ranges of C. m. melanocephalus (minimum estimate of 10.53 km² (4.1 mi²)) are larger than those observed for C. calvus (5.0-5.5 km² (1.9-2.1 mi²)), but some estimates for C. c. ucayalii place home range at a very large 30 km² (11.6 mi²) however, often the area within the home range that is used the majority of the time is smaller, as is the case with C. calvus (2.5-3.0 km² (1.0-1.2 mi²)) (Ayres 1989; Leonard & Bennett 1996; Boubli 1997).
Harpy eagles (Harpya harpya) are a potential and actual predator of uakaris (Leonard & Bennett 1996; Boubli 1997a; Barnett et al. 2005b). Other potential predators include ocelots (Felis pardalis), tayras (Eira barbara) and Boa constrictor snakes. Uakaris often react to perceived aerial threats, including bird species that are not predators, such as toucans (Boubli 1997a).
In different locations, uakaris are sympatric with different primate species, but across their distribution, they can be sympatric with members of the genera Alouatta, Aotus, Callicebus, Chiropotes, Cebus, Lagothrix, Pithecia, and Saimiri (Leonard & Bennett 1996; Boubli 1999; 2002).
In some cases, uakaris are found in association with other primates including spider monkeys (Ateles sp.), wooly monkeys (Lagothrix sp.), sakis (Chiropotes sp. & Pithecia sp.), capuchins (Cebus sp.), and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sp.) (Leonard & Bennett 1996; Aquino 1988; 1998; Boubli 2002). Such associations might provide predator protection and foraging benefits (Leonard & Bennett 1996).
Competition for food comes from species with dietary overlap with uakaris, such as macaws (Ara sp.), squirrels and sympatric primates such as squirrel monkeys and capuchins. Such overlap and levels of potential competition require quantitative assessment, but are probably low (Barnett 2005; Barnett et al. 2005a; Barnett 2008).
Sleeping occurs high in the trees, normally 17 (55.8 ft) to around 40 meters (131.2 ft) up, with the troop distributed in different trees over about an acre, with only 6-7 individual uakaris per sleeping tree (Ayres 1990; Aquino 1998).
Content last modified: July 21, 2008
Written by Kurt Gron. Reviewed by Adrian Barnett.
Cite this page as:
Gron KJ. 2008 July 21. Primate Factsheets: Uakari (Cacajao) Taxonomy, Morphology, & Ecology . <http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/uakari>. Accessed 2020 July 7.
INTERNATIONAL STATUS
For individual primate species conservation status, please search the IUCN Red List.
Also search the current scientific literature for primate conservation status (overall as well as for individual species), and visit CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
Conservation information last updated in 2008 follows, for comparison:
C. melanocephalus and its subspecies are listed as Least Concern; however, this may be in error and the result of observations of seasonal aggregations of animals feeding in flooded forests. The status of C. melanocephalus (and C. m. ouakary) should be reviewed (Adrian Barnett pers. comm.).
CONSERVATION THREATS & POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS
Threat: Human-Induced Habitat Loss and Degradation
Logging has detrimental effects on uakaris and their habitat, even if the desired tree is not favored by uakaris. This is due to collateral felling of uakari food trees to help float commercial logs to points of sale, a reduction in selectivity of loggers resulting in food species being felled, and the alteration of the ecology of plant life in habitats precipitated by dams created by logged trees (Ayres 1986; 1990). Logging is in fact helped by the seasonal inundation of some uakari habitats as the water provides an easy way to extract logs by floating (Ayres 1990). Habitat degradation for agriculture also threatens uakari habitat as does the clearing of forests for pastureland (Heymann 1990). Further, the clearing of land for the establishment of ranches also has the potential to deplete uakari habitat (Barnett & da Cunha 1991). Illegal gold mining has also caused disturbances in uakari habitat, even in protected areas (da Cunha & Barnett 1989; Boubli 1994). One of the ways it does so is by damaging small watercourses by washing topsoil into them as well as by clearing of vegetation by burning it (Boubli 1997b). Several species of tree in the diet of the golden-backed uakari (C. m. ouakary) are also exploited commercially for timber (Barnett 2008).
Threat: Harvesting (hunting/gathering)
Across the genus Cacajao, the degrees of and the purposes for hunting uakaris are variable. For example, in Brazil, white uakaris (C. c. calvus) are not typically hunted for food, partially due to their anthropomorphic, or human-like, appearance. However in Peru, C. calvus is hunted intensively, for food as well as for skulls for the tourist souvenir trade (Mittermeier & Coimbra-Filho 1977; Ayres 1986; Bartecki & Heyman 1987; Aquino 1988). In Venezuela, hunting pressure is likely the most profound threat to C. melanocephalus, especially by illegal gold miners for which bushmeat is an important food source (Barnett & da Cunha 1991; Lehman & Robertson 1994). In addition, miners sometimes hire indigenous hunters to procure bushmeat (Boubli 1997b). Sometimes, the large numbers of uakari individuals occurring in one place make them easy to hunt from a canoe (Defler 2001). Commercial hunting also threatens uakaris and occurs for the procurement of animal protein in the diets of some communities (Heymann 1990; Barnett & da Cunha 1991). Uakaris are also hunted for use as bait, particularly for fish, turtle, or cats, and even in areas where they are not hunted for food (Mittermeier & Coimbra-Filho 1977; Barnett & da Cunha 1991). While in some areas, hunting has formerly focused on the largest primates for food, depletion of those populations can cause an increase in hunting of somewhat smaller primates including uakaris who had been previously unaffected (Ward & Chism 2003).
Uakaris are also collected as pets, often as infants when their mothers are killed and sometimes specifically for this purpose (Aquino 1988; Ward & Chism 2003).
Threat: Pollution
Mercury, a byproduct of illegal mining sometimes makes its way into watercourses within uakari habitats and has the potential to adversely affect the health of the species (Lehman & Robertson 1994).
Threat: Intrinsic Factors
Bald uakaris have one of the highest rates of malarial infection in Amazonian primates. This infection rate might be attributable to their large group size and has the potential to have detrimental effects on their health (Davies et al. 1991).
Threat: Harvesting (hunting/gathering)
Across the genus Cacajao, the degrees of and the purposes for hunting uakaris are variable. For example, in Brazil, white uakaris (C. c. calvus) are not typically hunted for food, partially due to their anthropomorphic, or human-like, appearance. However in Peru, C. calvus is hunted intensively, for food as well as for skulls for the tourist souvenir trade (Mittermeier & Coimbra-Filho 1977; Ayres 1986; Bartecki & Heyman 1987; Aquino 1988). In Venezuela, hunting pressure is likely the most profound threat to C. melanocephalus, especially by illegal gold miners for which bushmeat is an important food source (Barnett & da Cunha 1991; Lehman & Robertson 1994). In addition, miners sometimes hire indigenous hunters to procure bushmeat (Boubli 1997b). Sometimes, the large numbers of uakari individuals occurring in one place make them easy to hunt from a canoe (Defler 2001). Commercial hunting also threatens uakaris and occurs for the procurement of animal protein in the diets of some communities (Heymann 1990; Barnett & da Cunha 1991). Uakaris are also hunted for use as bait, particularly for fish, turtle, or cats, and even in areas where they are not hunted for food (Mittermeier & Coimbra-Filho 1977; Barnett & da Cunha 1991). While in some areas, hunting has formerly focused on the largest primates for food, depletion of those populations can cause an increase in hunting of somewhat smaller primates including uakaris who had been previously unaffected (Ward & Chism 2003).
Uakaris are also collected as pets, often as infants when their mothers are killed and sometimes specifically for this purpose (Aquino 1988; Ward & Chism 2003).
Threat: Pollution
Mercury, a byproduct of illegal mining sometimes makes its way into watercourses within uakari habitats and has the potential to adversely affect the health of the species (Lehman & Robertson 1994).
Threat: Intrinsic Factors
Bald uakaris have one of the highest rates of malarial infection in Amazonian primates. This infection rate might be attributable to their large group size and has the potential to have detrimental effects on their health (Davies et al. 1991).
LINKS TO MORE ABOUT CONSERVATION
CONSERVATION INFORMATION
- No current links for Cacajao
- Links for all species
CONSERVATION NEWS
- New monkey species is already endangered (New Scientist; January 19, 2008)
- Links for all species
ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN Cacajao CONSERVATION
Content last modified: July 21, 2008
Written by Kurt Gron. Reviewed by Adrian Barnett.
Cite this page as:
Gron KJ. 2008 July 21. Primate Factsheets: Uakari (Cacajao) Conservation . <http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/uakari/cons>. Accessed 2020 July 7.
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Content last modified: July 21, 2008
IMAGES
Cacajao calvus Photo: Primates in Art & Illustration |
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Cacajao calvus calvus Photo: Luiz Claudio Marigo |
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Cacajao calvus calvus Photo: Luiz Claudio Marigo |
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Cacajao calvus calvus Photo: Luiz Claudio Marigo |
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Cacajao calvus rubicundus Photo: Roy Fontaine |
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Cacajao calvus rubicundus Photo: Roy Fontaine |
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Cacajao calvus rubicundus Photo: Roy Fontaine |
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Cacajao calvus rubicundus Photo: Roy Fontaine |
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Cacajao calvus rubicundus Photo: Roy Fontaine |
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Cacajao calvus rubicundus Photo: Roy Fontaine |
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Cacajao melanocephalus Photo: Luiz Claudio Marigo |
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Cacajao melanocephalus Photo: Luiz Claudio Marigo |
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Cacajao melanocephalus Photo: Luiz Claudio Marigo |
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